Thursday, 30 April 2020

Book 2, lines 22-72


[Previous: lines 1-21]
Tempus erat per membra quies cùm grata soporem
irrigat, ac positis affert oblivia curis.
Et iam noctipotens manus imo emissa barathro,
horribiles visu formae, furialibus omnem                          [25]
cœtibus obsedere urbem. Pars turribus instant;
pars apicem templi, et fastigia summa coronant.
Caetera perque vias legio, perque alta domorum
tecta volant, tractimque haerent per culmina tignis.
Haud secus Italiam repetunt ubi vere tepenti                     [30]
coerula aves longo fessae super aequora cursu,
quae prior occurrit tellus, hanc agmine denso
certatim arripiunt, procurvaque littora complent.

Principio spargunt occultum in pectora virus,
vipereamque viris animam, caecumque furorem                [35]
inspirant odiumque animis, et crimina linquunt.
Multi etiam in facies hominum vertuntur, et omnem
protinus incendunt variis rumoribus urbem.
Irrepunt tectis alii, somnoque solutis
somnia dira ferunt varia sub imagine rerum,                     [40]
atque hominum falsis simulacris pectora ludunt.
Iamque huius subeunt, iamque illius alta potentum
limina, et attonitos dictis hortantur in hostem,
terrificantque animos, facta atque infecta canentes:
Christum inferre faces, arisque instare bipenni                  [45]
armatum aerata, atque adytis extrema minari;
et iam semusto in templo dominarier ignem.

Quin ipsos templi mentiti veste ministros
singula tecta adeunt, patresque ad limina sacra,
conciliumque vocant. Nigri dux agminis ipse                        [50]
impulit aerisono stridentes cardine portas.
Hinc atque hinc delubra petunt: concurritur ultrò
undique, nec tenebris nox obstat euntibus atra.
Non aliter, captam si rumor nunciet urbem
nocte dolis intempesta, atque latentibus armis                     [55]
hostem inferre acies, et iam summa arce receptum;
culminibusque immissa voret fax atra penates:
plenis cuncta viis fervent, trepidoque tumultu
huc atque huc itur, nec sat rationis eundi est.
Praecedunt dirae facies, facibusque nefandis                       [60]
sufficiunt lucem, et summo dant vertice lumen,
terrificas capitum quatientes undique flammas.
Nec miseri tamen agnoscunt: furor omnibus intus
eripuit mentem, lapsumque in viscera virus.
Nec minùs interea bis seni ex agmine missi                          [65]
bis senos Christi ad socios, evertere siquem
possent, et furiis deceptum incendere iniquis.
Illi autem pleni monitis ducis (antè futura
praescius ista suis praedixerat omnia) servant
invictos animos, inapertaque pectora fraudi;                        [70]
quanquam hostis species sese transformet in omnes
nequicquam expertus, mentesque indagine captet.
------------
It was the time weary bodies sink gladly
to sleep, sloughing off cares in oblivion.
Now in nightpotent emission from the pit,
ghastly to behold, all-furious demons                                       [25]
swarmed through the night city. Some took the towers;
some the temple’s apex and its various heights.
The rest, a multitude, spread through the streets
and houses, gathering in rows on the roofs.
As when, returning to Italy for spring’s warmth                        [30]
birds, weary after their flight through long blue skies,
sighting land, all alight in a dense body
bickering for the best spots on the shoreline.

They injected secret slime into men’s hearts,
and viper-like venom in their minds, blind rage                         [35]
instilling hatred, strewing crime in their paths.
Many took human shape, and with incendiary
rumour inflamed the whole of the city.
Other slipped through roofs into sleepers’ bedrooms
bringing myriad sickly dreams to them                                      [40]
and seeding false images in their hearts.
They crossed the thresholds of many famous homes
rousing wealthy citizens against the foe
frightening their souls with both true and fake news:
Christ was bringing torches! menacing altars                             [45]
with two-bladed bronze axes! breaking in!
threatening to burn the already-smoking temple!

Some even dressed themselves in temple vestments,
ran round the houses summoning the elders,
to sacred council. The leader of this black                                 [50]
crew hauled the shrieking bronze gateway open.
In they swarmed, this way and that, seeking altars:
night’s thickened darkness was no impediment.
As when, rumour spreads that the city has fallen
at night, taken by stealth and concealed arms                            [55]
the enemy are now burning the high ground;
homes destroyed and the scorched household-gods seized:
the streets are filled, all is tumult and panic
this way and that, no-one sure of anything.
Dire forms led the way, their wicked firebrands                        [60]
shining, and more light gleaming from the tops
of their heads bright with terrifying flames.
These wretched ones knew no better: fury had
seized their minds; the poison was in their bowels.
Meanwhile twelve demons were dispatched against                  [65]
Christ’s twelve disciples, to pervert where they could,
deceive them with their furious ravings.
They, though, held to the teachings (this future
was something he’d foreseen) of their leader
so their souls and hearts held firm against fraud;                       [70]
and though the enemy tried all its wiles to
capture their minds, it was entirely in vain.
------------

‘Virus’ in line 34 means ‘a stinking smell’ and ‘poison, venom, bitterness’; but it also means ‘slimy liquid, slime’, and I liked that for my translation; although later (line 64) I’ve translated the same word as ‘poison’, which might look inconsistent of me. Can’t help that.

So: Vida prepares the ground for the betrayal of Jesus—and transitions from a Jerusalem joyfully greeting Christ as the messiah to a Jerusalem gleefully mocking him as he is crucified—by inserting this extra-Biblical scene of many devils hurrying around the sleeping city, spreading rumours, stirring things up and, in another moment lifted by Milton for Paradise Lost, whispering at the ear of sleeping people to fill their hearts with wicked thoughts.
Other slipped through roofs into sleepers’ bedrooms
bringing myriad sickly dreams to them
and seeding false images in their hearts. [39-41]
This, of course, becomes:
                    him there they found
Squat like a Toad, close at the eare of Eve;
Assaying by his Devilish art to reach
The Organs of her Fancie, and with them forge
Illusions as he list, Phantasms and Dreams,
Or if, inspiring venom, he might taint
Th' animal spirits that from pure blood arise [Paradise Lost, 4:799-805 ]
… where Milton’s ‘venom’ glances at Vida’s virus and ‘Illusions, Phantasms and Dreams’ at Vida’s simulacra, falsa imagines et somni (lines 39-40).

If I were ever to write a critical introduction to Paradise Lost, I’d start with this, it seems to me, most crucial point: Milton was writing about stuff he considered to be, radically, inescapably and literally, true. It’s tempting, nowdays, to take the poem as we might listen to Wagner’s Ring, or read Lord of the Rings, but where those works might be taken as artistically—metaphorically—true, we don’t believe in them literally. Sauron might scare us, but Milton’s Satan scared its original readers in a much more profound way because they believed (as many still do, today) him to be a real, an actual presence in the world, one who might take a malign interest, specifically, in them.

The fundamental fault-line in the elaborate cultures of demonology and diabolic exorcism has to do with free will. As far back as the 3rd century AD, Church Father Origen was stressing that even Satan himself was not wicked by nature, but by choice: one who is bad by nature, he pointed out, can only act wickedly as so cannot be held guilty or accountable for his or her actions (indeed, Origen believed that, at the end of time, even Satan himself might repent and be saved). But if people possessed by devils still have a choice to do good, one wonders why positing demons as agents of possession is a better way of hypothesising human wickedness. A person possessed by a devil has their will doubled, human potential for good or evil overwritten by a second, hellish will interested only in the latter; and this in turn pivots moral choice into a simple matter of strength of will. Of course, not everybody is blessed with a strong will; and it seems hard to condemn them is a stronger diabolical will overwhelms them, literally, from the inside.

Earlier, Vida showed Christ himself exorcising a demon of lust from Mary Magdalene. Here, though, he holds back; these various devils attempt all manner of trickery, but none of the actually possess anyone. And it’s easy enough to see why Milton was drawn to this, rather than the earlier model, in his retelling: Satan in Paradise Lost persuades, rather than actually possessing, Eve. Milton could have written his version the latter way, I suppose; but since the Elizabethan clergyman Samuel Harsnett published his attack Catholic exorcists, arguing that exorcisms were nothing more than ‘egregious Popish impostures’, Protestantism had tended to distance itself from that whole business. Whispering in a sleeping person’s ear, though, is the sort of thing anybody, mortal or diabolic, might undertake; and the reason why it is worse when a demon does it is … because they’re more eloquent and persuasive than mortals? (That doesn’t sound right). Because they’re more motivated? There are plenty of wicked people in the world who might try and persuade you to join them in wickedness. Why do we need to bring demons into this at all?

But, to repeat myself, one answer to that question would be: because Vida, and many of the people of his age, believed demons to be literal presences in the world, and demonic possession to be true. Devils have Biblical sanction, after all. But it may be, as Terry Eagleton argues here, that people in the Renaissance believed that ‘demonic possession’ was just a way of talking about other things:
Epilepsy, hysteria and melancholy (or clinical depression) were also considered primary causes. In fact, hysteria was already being touted as an explanation for being in thrall to Beelzebub as early as the 17th century. Our ancestors were by no means as gullible as we sometimes imagine: there were many devout Christians who were sceptical of the whole phenomenon. Thomas Hobbes was one of several who saw it as a metaphor for mental illness. Spinoza seems to have believed the same. From the early years of the Renaissance, plenty of physicians claimed that demonic possession had natural causes. So did some of their ancient Greek and Hellenic predecessors. Belief in the power of evil spirits to infest the human body was never an article of faith for Catholics, and no one was prosecuted for heresy for denying it.
All this is complicated, in the Christiad by the artistic decision Vida has taken to replace the Olympian superstructure of superhuman gods and goddesses found in Homer and Vergil with devils and angels. As I’ve said before on this very blog, in Iliad 1:194f when Achilles, furious with Agamemnon, rushes sword-in-hand to kill him and Athene appears and seizes him by the hair to prevent him, we can either say ‘these are material events that happen in the world of the poem’, or we can say ‘this is how the poet describes Achilles changing his mind, because Homeric epic is entirely lacking in the interiority of the modern novel and so when inward state are described by the poet they must be externalised.

This, it seems to me, cuts both ways. At the beginning of Hamlet, Hamlet’s friends alert him to the fact that they have seen the play’s ghost, and worry aloud that it might try to possess him demoniacaly; by the time of the scene in Gertude’s closet only Hamlet can see the ghost, and the centre of gravity has shifted from supernatural entities to insanity and internal mental disorder. The play, in fact, is about both things, or both worlds, not about one worldview superseding the other. There are respectable, or semi-respectable, contemporary thinkers who would make a similar argument from the other side. Consider Bruno Latour, whose The Modern Cult of the Factish Gods (2011) argues (in the words of Barbara Herrnstein Smith) that:
Scientific facts, like technological artefacts, are constructed by humans, but both are nonetheless real in the sense of being – at least provisionally – stable and consequential. This much repeats the essentials of actor-network theory, but Latour’s important claim here is that the same can be said of religious beings: divinities and demons, icons and fetishes. The French noun le fait, he observes, ‘means both “what somebody has fabricated” (the manufactured thing) and “what nobody has fabricated” (the autonomous fact)’. This is not, he insists, a contradiction, but to understand why requires us to ‘abandon critical thought, forget notions of belief, magic, hypocrisy and autonomy’, and let go of ‘the stunning mastery that has made us Moderns and proud of it.’
Best to avoid any crowing about the fundamental superiority of the modern worldview, perhaps.

[Next: lines 73-112]

Wednesday, 29 April 2020

Book 2, lines 1-21



[Previously: Book 1 lines 872-963].

Book 2 begins.
At Solymi trepidi rerum, et formidine caeci,
noctem illam patrum primi, templique ministri
insomnem duxere; animis adeò addita cura
incubat, ac nullam attonitis dat dira quietem.
Omnibus ante oculos urbem ingredientis imago          [5]
laeta dei, festique manûs impubis honores;
illiusque vident latè increbrescere nomen.
Fama volat, passimque canit miracula rerum.
Quid faciant? magis atque magis iam vera pateseunt,
quae quondam prisci vates cecinere futura,                 [10]
terras cœlesti regem de stirpe manere,
cuius in adventu templum, Judaeaque tandem
regna ruant; Solymeque eversis desinat aris
antiquo de more sacros imponere honores.
Ergo infracti animis omnes, terrore subacti,                [15]
tectis, quisque suo, septi clausique manebant.
Quales quae solitae florentia rura volantes
carpere apes, ubi saevit hyems, cœlumque profusos
solvitur in nimbos, et aquosus regnat Orion,
ocia lenta terunt, clausisque alvearibus aegrae            [20]
cunctantur, circumque fores ac limina mussant.
------------
At Jerusalem, frightened by events, blind
with foreboding, unsleeping, the temple priests
passed a troubled night; care weighing their souls
and minds, and all their quietude smitten.
With their own eyes they’d seen the glad spectacle          [5]
of God entering a festive city, widely honoured;
and they saw how his fame was spreading widely.
Rumour flew, passing news of his miracles
What to do? More and more the truth of ancient
prophecy was revealed, that now was coming               [10]
a king of heavenly lineage to the earth
at whose advent Judea and its temples
would be broken, Jerusalem would cease
to observe its ancient and once-sacred rites.
So, broken-spirited all, fear-prostrated,                          [15]
they hid, each of them locked up in their houses.
They were like those fliers over flowery fields
pollinating bees, when harsh winter throngs skies
with stormclouds, and watery Orion reigns
grinding down rain, they stay in their hives, sick,         [20]
dawdling, buzzing anxiously near the doorways.
------------

And so we're into Book 2. The scene returns to Jerusalem, and the first third of this second stage in the epic deals with swarms of devils, flying up from hell and into Jerusalem to tempt the priests to persecute Jesus. They also tempt the disciples to betray their master, although of this group only Judas succumbs.

Before we get to that, though, we have this little pen-portrait of the sick and anxious priests of the old religion. The interesting thing in this opening 21-line section, it seems to me, is the bee-y epic simile of lines 17-21. This ‘Jews as bees’ image does two things, both of them more than a little anti-Semitic. One is it reminds the reader of Vida’s earlier bee simile, back when Hell is first described in Book 1, and Satans minions swarm away at the end of his speech:
Striding through air they beat their hairy wings
through the black void until they reached upper land.
No cloud as dense was ever formed, not even when
bees swarm hungrily upon the summer flowers
when cloudbusting Boreas and rainy Auster grow calm,
and the warlike kings of the hives charge out
hurrying to battle under their opposing flags. [Christiad 1:227-33]
And second thing it does is to transition the narrative into a related image: as demons swarm into the city. In both cases bees figure not as the home-and-honey-making representatives of social order, hierarchy and harmony that Shakespeare’s Ulysses praises, but as something monstrous, diseased (‘aeger’ in line 20 means ‘sick, ill’ and only secondarily ‘anxious, worried’) diabolical. Milton takes-up this notion wholesale for Paradise Lost, when describing his swarming demons:
Thick swarm'd, both on the ground and in the air,
Brusht with the hiss of russling wings. As Bees
In spring time, when the Sun with Taurus rides,
Pour forth thir populous youth about the Hive
In clusters; they among fresh dews and flowers
Flie to and fro, or on the smoothed Plank,
The suburb of thir Straw-built Cittadel,
New rub'd with Baum, expatiate and confer
Thir State affairs. So thick the aerie crowd
Swarm'd [Paradise Lost 1: 759-76]
It interests me that bees can figure in two so widely divergent ways.

One translation note: my ‘pollinating bees’ of line 18 is a touch problematic: the original is, carpere apes and carpo means: ‘I pluck, pick, harvest’. The ancients knew bees harvested pollen, and turned it into honey, but were (so far as I understand it) unaware the role this played in cross-pollination of plants as such—and since this latter is now very much what the semantic field of ‘pollinating’ entails nowadays, it seems to me a little anachronistic to translate as I have here. But ‘harvesting bees’ looked too weird to me, so I’ve gone with ‘pollinating’.

The image at the top is the title page of Francesco Stelluti's Melissographia (1625). Stelluti (1577-1652) wrote and illustrated this book, after years of close observations of the insects, including the use of an early microscope. The book itself is dedicated to Pope Urban VIII; bees were the heraldic emblem of the Urban's family, the Barberini.

[Next: lines 22-72]

Tuesday, 28 April 2020

Book 1, lines 872-963


[Previous: lines 830-871]

Christ has climbed Mount Tabor, accompanied only by Peter, James and John, and addressed his father. Now God replies:
Filius haec: Genitor contrà cui talia reddit.
“Nate, Patris virtus, nostrique simillima imago,
nulla tuis fraus, (solve metum) nullaeve nocebunt
insidiae, quas nunc regni molitur operti                  [875]
arbiter; incœpti frustra irritus omnia tentat.
Induat in facies centum, centum ille figuras;
ipse adero, retegamque dolos, fœcundaque fraudis
agmina disiiciam, et magna virtute resistam.
Unus erit tantùm, cui mentem insania vertet:          [880]
infelix, iam nunc devoto pectore versat
infandum scelus ; atque tui iam pœnitet aegrum,
secum indignantem, tua quòd praecepta sequutus
exuerit blandum vitae mortalis amorem,
malueritque graves sub te tolerare labores:              [885]
omnia quae mecum mundi ante exordia nôsti.
Hunc tamen indignum numero cœtuque piorum
addidimus, memores vatum, qui talia quondam
praedixere, tuis exemplum insigne futurum.
Evadent alii insidias meliora sequuti.                         [890]
Omnes, te propter contempto lucis amore,
haud mortem horrescent, pergentque in funera laeti;
innumeramque suo parient tibi sanguine gentem,
proiectu vitae, et mortis amore, superbi.
Efficiam cœlo dignos post aspera tandem                     [895]
funera, deserti magnum aetheris incrementum.
Quos tu olim aspicies hac relligione nepotes
surgere, Nate, tibi! quàm pectora certa videbis!
Tu modò tu perge, et cœptum decurre laborem.
Hi, quos cernis enim vix nunc tua iussa sequutos          [900]
indociles, fandi ignaros, (mora non erit) altos
pectore concipient sensus, doctoque verendas
ore canent leges afflati numine nostro,
et vastum in melius referent hortatibus orbem.
Succedent aliis alii, sacrique nepotes—                        [905]
victores tua signa ferent trans ultima claustra
oceani latas undis cohibentia terras;
clarescetque tuum passim per secula nomen.
Sponte sua invicti reges tibi sceptra, tibi arma
subiicient sua per terras, arasque sacrabunt.               [910]
atque adeô gravida imperiis Roma illa superba,
appenninivagi quae propter Tybridis undam
ingentes populos frenat, pulcherrima rerum,
summittet fasces, et, quas regit, orbis habenas.
Illic relligio, centum illic maxima templa,                      [915]
centum arae tibi fumantes, centumque ministri;
quique viris latè, atque ipsis det iura, sacerdos
regibus, et summo te in terris reddat honore.
Siqua tamen, paulatim annis labentibus, aetas
decolor inficiet mores, versisque nepotes                       [920]
degeneres surgent studiis; per dura laboresque
exercens lapsam revocabo in pristina gentem:
illa malis semper melior se tollet ad astra.
Saepe solo velut eversam, excisamque videbis,
quam modò praedixi, populorum incursibus, urbem:      [925]
verùm quò magis illa malis exercita, semper
altiùs hoc surgens celsum caput inseret astris,
mœniaque in melius semper recidiva reponet;
nec nisi subiecto passim sibi desinet orbe.
Sic placitum : nostri sedes ea numinis esto.”                  [930]
Haec ait; et Natum dextra complexus inhaesit.
ecce, autem subitò rubra vibratus ab aethra
cum sonitu fulgor micat, et polus intonat ingens.
Nam Pater omnipotens manifestus ab aethere nubem
ostendit radiis illustrem lucis, et igni.                              [935]
Omnia collucent latè loca: turbine Christus
corripitur rapido, mediaque in nube refulsit,
verus et aspectu patuit Deus; atque per auras
divinum toto spiravit vertice odorem
luminis aetherei specimen, Genitoris imago.                    [940]
Nec secus emicuit roseo pulcherrimus ore
insolita circum perfundens omnia luce,
quàm cùm manè recens, lucis fons aureus, ingens,
lumine sol cœlum exoriens rigat omne profuso;
oceani in speculo longè resplendet imago,                       [945]
et croceae effulgent aurata cacumina sylvae.
Talem se sociis mirantibus obtulit heros,
amborum in medio vatum: quorum alter adivit
flammifero quondam invectus cœli ardua curru,
et tranavit, equis insultans, aeris auras;                         [950]
Isacidûm Phariis genus alter duxit ab oris
dux profugum, legesque dedit, moremque sacrorum.
Nec non cœlicolûm propiùs tum maxima pandi
visa domus, cœlique ingens apparuit aula.
Tum Genitor, nubis fulgens candentis amictu,                 [955]
oscula libavit Nato, et vox lapsa per auras:
“Hic mea progenies: hic est mea magna voluptas;
uni huic mortales omnes parete volentes.”
Nec plura his: toto assonuit chorus omnis Olympo
cœlestûm cantu vario, plausumque dedere.                     [960]
Tum demum in faciem consuetam redditus heros
attonitos socios monstrisque, metuque sepultos
excitat, atque hominis mortali apparuit ore.
------------
So spoke the Son, and his Father replied:
“Son, you are your father’s virtue and image,
your friends (fear not!) will suffer no harm by
treachery, or evil orchestrated by the                               [875]
infernal lord:—all his schemes are null and void.
Though he wear a hundred masks, take a hundred
forms, he'll reveal himself, betray his schemes and
frauds: I shall repel them with great potency.
There's only one, whose mind is driven mad:                  [880]
unhappy, planning now, against his own will,
infamous sin:—a sick man, who now regrets
following you and all your teachings, since
he is still, at heart, in love with mortal life,
and can’t endure such grave and bitter hardships:           [885]
though this was known from the world’s beginning.
And yet this low man was one your godly
number, since we are mindful of the prophets,
who predicted it, as an example.
The others, choosing a better path, prosper. –                  [890]
all, scorning mere love of life for your sake, will
meet their fate, the horrors of death, with joy;
and their blood will bring forth new followers
for you, proud to die, disregarding life.
After such sharp deaths they will be worthy                    [895]
of heaven, and greatly add to its numbers.
How many will you see, generations unborn
rising up, following—you, Son!—with stout hearts!
You will see this if you complete your work.
Even those harder to reach will follow you                    [900]
ignorant now (it will take time) they’ll change 
their hearts will grow wise, awe will instruct them:
my numinous spirit will lead them to the law,
and so remake the world into a better place.
Generations will come and come, sacred sons                [905]
to carry your victorious standard beyond
the very Ocean that engirds the world;
through the ages they will magnify your name.
Unvanquished kings will lay their sceptres before you,
and raise your holy altars throughout their lands.          [910]
Even proud Rome, gravid with empire, beside
the flowing Tiber’s Apennine-born waves,
ruling huge populations—finest of cities—
will submit its fasces and the reins of the world.
Its religion, and its hundred temples,                             [915]
its hundred smoking altars, its hundred priests
will become one priest, ruling widely over
men and kings, and you will be honoured worldwide.
And if, later on, a coarser age loosens
men’s morals, and some distant descendants                 [920]
degenerate from my way—then hard labour
imposed by me shall recall them to piety:
Strengthened by their woes they’ll rise up to the stars.
Often you will see this city overthrown,
deleted by barbarian invaders;                                     [925]
but, truly, the more the city is punished,
the more its head will rise up again starry;
the further its walls fall the higher they rise up
not resting until they encircle the whole world.
It’s my will: let this be the seat of our divine soul.”    [930]

He spoke, and drew his Son in with his right arm.
Then, suddenly: ruby light shook through the air
with clamorous thunder and flashing lightning.
From high, the Great Father manifested himself
in a cloud of laser-lustrous light and fire.                    [935]
All around glittered: a whirlwind caught Christ
in its rapid midst, shining through that cloud,
manifestly a true god; and through aerial
vertices breathed a divine fragrance
vision of aethereal light, his Father’s image.              [940]
Just as when dawn’s beautiful roseate glow
perfuses the whole horizon with its light
and the morning grows huge with golden brilliance,
bathing the entire sky in sun’s illumination
reflecting from Ocean’s resplendent mirror,               [945]
and the saffron-golden woodlands brightly blaze.
In this form his disciples saw the hero,
flanked by two prophets: one who formerly
climbed to heaven in a horse-drawn fiery
chariot, traversing the aerial world;                           [950]
the other who saved Isaac’s sons from Pharaoh
leading those wanderers, giving laws and religion.
All heaven’s inhabitants came into view,
that bright palace and its many halls.
Then the Creator, mantled in gleaming cloud,         [955]
kissed his Son’s lips, his voice out of the sky:
“This is my progeny: this my greatest joy;
let all men as one willingly obey him.”
Nothing more: all Olympus choired in assent
the heavens singing songs and all applauding.        [960]
When the hero turned his face he was again himself;
his followers, stunned and scared by what they
had seen, met him in the form of a mortal man.
------------

In God’s reply to Christ, here, the poem becomes really very Catholic. I don’t say this as a snark, because of course the Christiad is a Catholic poem—proudly and deliberately a Catholic poem. But here there are references not just to Rome as the coming centre of Christ’s worship, but more particular digs at Protestantism, as at lines 919-23:
And if, later on, a coarser age loosens
men’s morals, and some distant descendants
degenerate from my way—then hard labour
imposed by me shall recall them to piety:
Strengthened by their woes they’ll rise up to the stars. 
—in which God not only predicts the Reformation (which was well underway in 1535) but assures us of the inevitable success of the Counter-Reformation (a prediction posterity has rather stubbornly refused to verify). What’s happening here is that Vida is putting frankly partisan words into God’s mouth, something more than a little demeaning, one might think, for the ultimate divine force of the cosmos as such. Make no mistake: Vida's durus labor [921], the hard or rough work, of dragging these future recusants back to Rome means, amongst other things, torture and execution. Not nice, really.

My problem, to be clear, is not the doctrinal content of this speech by God. I don’t think it’s, you know, right; but that’s hardly the point. Vida is using his poem to ventriloquise God uttering the official line of his church, and one would hardly expect him, as an officer of that church, writing to please his Pope, to do otherwise. The problem is one of tone (of, that is, of poetry). Indeed, the disconnect between this speech and its doctrinal specificities is illuminated, I think, by the way Milton, whose Christian doctrine was very different to Vida’s, runs into similar tonal problems with his God monologues in Paradise Lost. The issues with Milton’s God are famously to do with the inertness of his voice, the aridity and monologic monotony of it, but they're something else too. We don’t have to go the full William Empson here—although much of what he says, in Milton’s God of the supreme being as a sadistic megalomaniac, a ‘God whose only pleasure is gloating over torture’, could very easily be, retrospectively, applied to Vida. But I'm taking Milton’s God to be not so much an exercise ya-booery aimed at the God as such (though there’s certainly a quantity of that proto-new-atheist stuff in Empson’s book) as an essay interested in a more specific problematic: how Milton, who belonged to the party that overthrew a tyrant, can reconcile his vision of God with his political morals, given that his God is so very much Vida’s God of the Old Catholic Hierarchy. I’m not sure he can, and Empson’s digs at a God ‘astonishingly like Uncle Joe Stalin’ and so on, pertain to that.

The underlying point, which still seems to me, after all these years, unrefuted, is that Milton in Paradise Lost, as Vida here in the Christiad, make God a character in their poems. It is a radical contradiction, a kind of self-annulling paradox, to make the author of all things (including Milton, Vida and therefore their poems) a mere character inside Milton and Vida’s poems, and the paradox has a particular acidity in this case, because the whole topic of Vida’s poem is the rich complexity of that unique overlap of eternal divinity and mortal humanity we call ‘Christ’. An ineffable God is one thing; but (this is what I take Empson to be saying) once such a being is styled as, in effect, another kind of Christ—only a much less forgiving and gentle one—a character in the world of the poem, such a character, boasting of how He will torture Protestants back into Catholicism can hardly avoid coming over as, well, repellent. A key mistake Dawkins and his ilk make is, precisely, in treating God as if he were just another actor in the cosmos, rather than being the ground upon which the cosmos as such is construed: C S Lewis gently rebuking those who accused him of believing in fairies at the bottom of his garden with the reply that, for a Christian, it was quite the other way about, that the garden was, as it were, in the fairy. But isn't that exactly the fault into which Vida here, and Milton later, slips?

Anyway: the first book of Vida’s epic ends here, with the Transfiguration of Christ, an episode taken from Matthew 17:1–8, Mark 9:2–8 and Luke 9:28–36. Here’s Matthew’s version:
Now after six days Jesus took Peter, James, and John his brother, led them up on a high mountain by themselves; and He was transfigured before them. His face shone like the sun, and His clothes became as white as the light. And behold, Moses and Elijah appeared to them, talking with Him. Then Peter answered and said to Jesus, “Lord, it is good for us to be here; if You wish, let us make here three tabernacles: one for You, one for Moses, and one for Elijah.” While he was still speaking, behold, a bright cloud overshadowed them; and suddenly a voice came out of the cloud, saying, “This is My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased. Hear Him!” And when the disciples heard it, they fell on their faces and were greatly afraid. But Jesus came and touched them and said, “Arise, and do not be afraid.” When they had lifted up their eyes, they saw no one but Jesus only. Now as they came down from the mountain, Jesus commanded them, saying, “Tell the vision to no one until the Son of Man is risen from the dead.”
It seems to me worth noting, following on from what I say in the previous paragraph, this NT God is an obscurity, a voice and a power; and that these things do not add up to Him being a character in Matthew’s story, I think.

A few notes on the Latin. With respect  to line 934-5’s ‘the Great Father manifested himself/in a cloud of laser-lustrous light’—well, I put up my hand. The Latin is nam Pater omnipotens manifestus nubem/ostendit radiis illustrem lucis, where radii luci are rays of light, radiant light; but I figured, since it was happening in amongst a ruby-lit cloud (nubis) that my translation was passable. You may disagree.

Otherwise the thing that is most notable about Vida’s transfiguration (apart from the ornately kitsch, one-might-say High Church Catholic, trappings and vibe of it) is how insistently the poem reiterates images of light, repeating the word and its variants over and over:
ostendit radiis illustrem lucis, et igni.
Omnia collucent latè loca: turbine Christus

luminis aetherei specimen, Genitoris imago.
Nec secus emicuit roseo pulcherrimus ore
insolita circum perfundens omnia luce,
quàm cùm manè recens, lucis fons aureus, ingens,
lumine sol cœlum exoriens rigat omne profuso [935-44]
These many iterations of light, and the attendant references to skies and fires and brightnesses, become almost egregrious. I haven't, for instance, translated each of these several luces with the same word, or it would get monotonous. Milton certainly picks up on this from Vida; indeed, to such a degree that light becomes one of the poem’s inspirational muses:
Hail holy light, offspring of Heav'n first-born,
Or of the eternal co-eternal beam
May I express thee unblamed. [Paradise Lost 3:1-3]
Looking back from Vida, we can see that he has shaped his version of the transfiguration out of a string of echoes of the passage in the first book of the Aeneid where Aeneas’s mother, Venus, appears to him first of all as a mortal woman, only afterwards revealing herself as a goddess:
Dixit, et avertens rosea cervice refulsit,
ambrosiaeque comae divinum vertice odorem
spiravere, pedes vestis defluxit ad imos,
et vera incessu patuit dea. [Aeneid 1:402-5]

‘She spoke, and as she turned away her roseate neck shone brightly. A divine fragrance breathed from her ambrosial hair, her clothes fell to her feet and she was revealed as a goddess.’
Venus then shrouds her son in a cloud and whisks him off to Carthage. Gardner points out that God kissing his son’s lips in line 956, oscula libavit Nato—not a detail mentioned in the gospels—comes from earlier in Aeneid, where Venus begs her father Jupiter to spare Aeneas, and he agrees: ‘oscula libavit Natae’, ‘he kissed his daughter’s lips’ [Aeneid, 1:256]

[Next: Book Two!]

Monday, 27 April 2020

Book 1, lines 830-871



His actis, iam devexum cum vesper Olympum          [830]
clauderet, egrediens malefida cessit ab urbe.
Tum Genitorem obitus affarier ante propinquos
exoptans, coramque arcanas promere voces,
ignaros socios Taburi ima in valle reliquit:
ipse autem ascensu superans capita ardua montis    [835]
constitit, aërea feriunt ubi sidera cedri.
Addiderant comites se tantùm ex omnibus illi
fidus Ioannes cum fratre, Petrusque, vocati.
Stabant orantes taciti, pariterque supinas
tendebant sine voce manus ac lumina cœlo.              [840]
Ipse autem his magno Genitorem affatur amore.
“O pater, en, insons nunc dira ad funera pergo
progenies tua, nec tot ferre indigna recuso,
quando certa tibi mens, atque haec fixa voluntas,
et tanti mortale genus: nil demoror, adsum.                [845]
Hos saltem, qui me, patriaque suisque relictis,
per varios casus lectissima corda sequuntur,
aspice, et immeritos caecis averte periclis.
Haud vereor, quòd se his homines, gens impia, passim
opponunt: nil facta hominum mortalia terrent.          [850]
Ipsi etiam (nihil hoc moveor) moriantur ad unum;
aut potiùs saevo, si vis, tu fulmine perde
correptos igni, et penitus res attere fractas
tu Genitor, tanto finemque impone labori;
si tantae est genus humanum cœlo addere molis,       [855]
seclaque mutatis in pristina reddere rebus.
Tantùm oro, (scelus!) inferno summissa barathro
gens, pestem meditata viris, nil improba furtis
officiat, non infando praevertat amore
insidiis captos, nec corda improvida fallat,                  [860]
dum scelera hortatur, nostrique oblivia suadet.
Iamiam aderunt infandi hostes, armata dolis gens,
Nondum animos satiata, graves nondum ulta dolores.
Has fraudes, jamque has fraudes, artesque movebunt.
Quas non mentiti simulato corpore formas,                   [865]
ut capiant genus innocuum, vertantque venenis
pestiferis? tu frange dolos, ferque irrita in auras
cuncta, Pater: tandem victis edice quiescant.
Sint, qui per terras gentes post funera nostra
iustitiam erudiant, et relligionis amorem:                       [870]
hanc veniam concede: id nati cedat amori.”
------------
After these events, and as twilight covered                  [830]
Olympus, he left the faithless city.
Resolving to speak to his father about his
coming death, and talk about certain hidden things,
he left his unwitting band below Mount Tabor:
and climbed to the peak of that difficult                       [835]
mountain, where lofty cedars jab at the stars.
He left his friends, choosing from among them
just faithful John and his brother, and Peter.
They stood quietly praying, stretching up
their hands and lifting their eyes to heaven.                  [840]
He himself framed words of love for his parent:
“Father, I go now to a ghastly death:
though I’m your son, I don’t refuse this pain,
since your mind is made up and your will fixed,
and mankind is worthy. No evasion: I’m here.               [845]
But these men, these followers of mine,
whose hearts have been true through all adversity,
look to them: protect them from unseen peril.
I don’t worry that all men are impious, or will
oppose them: mortal doings don’t scare me.                    [850]
for all men (this doesn’t touch me) must die;
or smash them, if you choose, with your dread lightning
burn them up, grind them into little pieces
you yourself, father, can end your great work;
if lifting mankind’s dead-weight into heaven,                  [855]
restoring their first purity, is too much.
Only, I ask (weak of me!) that hell’s low pit
and its devils, that plague of men, don’t block
humanity, don’t let them pervert their love
snaring them and their still too fallible hearts                 [860]
urging them to sin and forget my teaching.
This heinous enemy, strong in wiles, will come,
cowardly, hungry with the pains of the grave.
and use these fraudulent practices and arts.
How will they not dissimulate, changing,                        [865]
as they seek to conquer an innocent race and
poison them? You have the power: scatter these
enemies, Father: compel them all to cease.
If men remain on earth after I have died who
follow the path of justice and love religion:                    [870]
then: grant this mercy, for the love of your child.”
------------

I’m not sure what Vida means, exactly, by that parenthetical ‘(scelus!’) in line 857. I know what the word means: ‘an evil deed; a wicked, heinous, or impious action; a crime, sin.’ But I’m not sure whether Vida means it as a self-deprecating interjection by Jesus (in reference, perhaps, to his presumption in requesting things of his father) or as a way of characterising the devils of hell. The latter would make sense more broadly of course, but not where the brackets are concerned. Gardner, cannily, omits it entirely from his translation.

Mount Tabor is, traditionally, the site of Jesus’s transfiguration; and that’s where Vida’s epic is going. After this speech we get God’s reply, Christ shining with unearthly light, and that’s the moment on which Book 1 of the Christiad ends. It seems to me that Tabor is an awfully long way from Jerusalem—to which Christ, in the story, immediately returns. The Gospels don't specify the mount, but this is where tradition had decided it must have been—and who am I to deny tradition?



[Next: lines 872-963]

Sunday, 26 April 2020

Book 1, lines 793-829


[Previous: lines 725-792]

After saving the life of the woman taken in adultery, Jesus now addresses his followers.
Talia dein socios fatur conversus ad ipsos:
“Heu durum genus! haud possunt desistere victi.
Nil linquunt intentatum, nil prorsus inausum.          [795]
Nempe ego nunc festis, fas contra et jura, diebus,
affero opem invalidis, aegrosque in pristina reddo:
nunc sontes, et sponte sua commissa fatentes,
accipio, noxaque animos et crimine solvo.
Nunc socii fruges tractant et vina, priusquam          [800]
dent manibus lymphas, cùm victu corpora curant,
nec dapibus parcunt, et quae in nos plurima iactant.
Quinetiam me fraude petunt furta irrita adorti:
vel cùm Romanis astu me opponere tentant
incautum, quaeruntque dolo, an fas pendere regi       [805]
per capita argentum, edicto quod quisque iubetur.
Nec caecos mea facta movent ingentia, quae non
humanis fierent opibus, non artibus ullis:
nec qua vi haec agitem spoliati lumine cernunt;
consiliisque audent supremi obstare Parentis.             [810]
Nec priscos tollo ritus, legesve refigo:
quippe alia arcanis longè sententia dictis
indeprensa latet; longè altera sacra teguntur
nube sub obscura verborum. Ut cœtera mittam,
quid suis horretis vetitis imponere mensis                     [815]
viscera? non animis labem sublimibus affert,
aut his, aut illis ieiunia solvere rebus.
Vobis intus obest mens ipsa , et dira cupido.
Sed quoniam gaudet cœno immundaque palude
setigerum genus, et pecori huic innata libido est;         [820]
in sue adumbrantur veneris mala gaudia fœdae.
Quinetiam, ut iussis animos cœlestibus auctor
paulatim assuescens posset mollire colendo,
nec nulla inciperet sub relligione tenere
indociles primùm populos, obtusaque gentis                  [825]
pectora, iussit oves iugulare, et sanguine terram
imbuere, immeritosque aris mactare iuvencos:
quae tamen omnia erant, sicui mens alta vigebat,
venturae speculum mox relligionis et umbra.”
------------
And after this he addressed his disciples:
“Oh, men are hard! Even in defeat they persist.
There’s nothing they won’t try, nothing they won’t dare.          [795]
It’s true: I work sabbath days, contrary to law,
curing invalids and returning the sick to health:—
those who have sinned, and who confess the fact?
I accept them—and purge their souls of sin.
My followers handle fruit and wine before          [800]
washing their hands, they fill themselves with food,
all kinds of meat, and do other things beside.
Really they want to kill me, spreading these lies
or they try to entangle me with the Romans
by trickery, asking whether we should pay         [805]
money out in tax, an edict we must all follow.
They’re blind to my miracles, which are equally
impossible by human or magic explanation:
They do not see the light, my power, and dare
to obstruct the plans of the Supreme Father.          [810]
I don’t abolish the ancient rites or annul
the laws: but those obscure sayings have
a hidden meaning; quite different rites lie
beneath this fog of words. All else aside,
why does the idea of eating forbidden meats          [815]
so horrify them? Our sublime souls are not touched
by this or that means of satisfying hunger.
What harms us is our own spirit's dire desires.
That a bristly boar delights wallowing
in swampy mud, that its heart is lustful;                  [820]
means the pig shadows forth our foulest delights.
So, the Heavenly Father, to tame our souls,
to accustom us to the proper objects of worship,
and divine commandments, and to soften
the intractable hearts of an obtuse, primitive          [825]
people ordered, first, that sheep blood be spilled,
on the earth, and innocent cows killed at the altar:
but a lively mind would grasp that these are only
foreshadows, religion seen through a dark glass.”
------------

Vida has here retrofitted the (later) Pauline loosening of Jewish dietary laws, and put the instruction directly into Jesus’s mouth—eat all the pork you like, it’s the things of the spirit, not of the body, that defile us. It's anachronistic and, worse, reads like a kind of gentile special pleading, but fair enough. In fact this whole passage is a sort of transition-scene: from the drama of the woman taken in adultery, and leading into Christ's transfiguration on Mount Tabor, which is coming up next.

That said, and without wishing to enter the thorny wood dense with rebarbative theological speculation, I'm struck that there's something a bit ... odd, shall we say, about the placement of this little sermon. It's about, fundamentally, appetite and purity. Jesus is saying: a merely material approach (following certain in-the-world rules and laws, say; or refusing to eat certain deemed-unclean foods) do not address the real issue: purity is a spiritual, not a merely worldly, business.  It seems a little awkward to me that this follows hard on the heels of the pericope adulterae, especially since Vida spins that incident—or, if spins is unfair, then certainly fleshes out John's gospel with some imagined details—as a case of a beautiful and spirited young girl married against her will to a disgusting old-man-steptoe type. Who would blame such a person for fooling around with a younger lover? Or to put it another way: the pericope adulterae stands in a kind of structural relationship (near the end, but not the climax) with the earlier incident (near the beginning, but not the opening) in which Christ, in the House of Simon at Bethany, casts out a seven-headed demon of lust from the body of a young woman who had been having lots of promiscuous sex. Is the poem proposing two different models of sexual transgression? One is a matter of spiritual delinquency, like Magdalene in Simon's house; the other is, really, no worse than eating pork or omitting to wash one's hands before handling fruit. Or am I misreading Vida? I daresay I am. At the very least I have to say the comparison with the bristly boar at the end strikes a strange note: the pig bodies forth the laziness, gluttony and lust to which people can succumb; it is, in many ways, unclean. But it's OK to eat it? Hmm.

Saturday, 25 April 2020

Book 1, lines 725-792


[Previous: lines 693-724]
His animadversis, portis bipatentibus ibat                   [725]
multa putans, necdum gradibus descenderat heros
omnibus: et, magno iam longè urgente tumultu,
ecce trahebatur, passis per terga capillis,
pallida longaevi conjux Susanna Manassei;
quoi pater egregiam forma, et florentibus annis,           [730]
haud placitis taedis invitam aegramque jugârat.
Namque fidem ob thalami fœdatam adjusta vocabant
supplicia, ingenti juvenum sectante caterva.
Et iam saxa manu pueri vulgusque tenebant.

Ipse sed antevolans prohibebat tela sacerdos,                [735]
donec porticibus Christum conspexit in amplis;
ad quem ubi concessit, miseramque ad limina traxit,
Ingressus versare dolos: “Haec prodidit, inquit,
conjugium, thalamique fidem deprensa fefellit.
Sontem jura neci tali pro crimine dedi                             [740]
nostra iubent duris (sed quae inclementia!) saxis.
Teque ideo, vatum interpres mitissime, adimus,
et tua quaenam sit sententia quaerimus omnes.”
Dixerat, atque animo iam spes pascebat inanes,
his captum implicitumque putans sermonibus hostem,     [745]
praeclusos abitus, non effugia ulla relicta:
illam quippe neci si solveret interceptam
miti animo miseratus, eum turba omnis in ipsum
saxaque et ultrices raptim converteret iras,
quòd sanctas gentis leges everteret illex;                      [750]
si verò ad pœnam jusset pro crimine duci,
sese odiis vulgi objiceret crudelis acerbis.
Haec agitans iam victorem se mente ferebat,
pectora laetitia multùm tumefactus inani.
Ac veluti in somnis olim sibi visus arator,              [755]
dum terrae attrito suspendit vomere terga,
auri ingens pondus campo effodisse subacto,
gaudia vana fovet : cernet somno ille relictus
pauperiem, duros et adhuc sibi adesse labores,
somnia fortunamque animo execratus inanem.             [760]
Ipse viam Deus invenit (fallacia numen
nulla humana valet contra) qua legibus illi
parceret illaesis : nempe, ut defixa tenebat
ora solo, tandem attollens, turbamque paratam
aspectans, ait: “Haud dubium, quin crimine letum      [765]
sit merita; id prisci quondam sanxêre parentes.
Ergo agite ô vestrûm quicunque est criminis expers,
saxa manu primus rapiat, feriatque merentem.
Ecquis erit tanto è numero, qui vulnera prima
dirigat, et sceleris purum se proferat ultro?”               [770]
Sic memorans omnes servabat lumine pronus
obliquo, horrendumque tuens, illumque paratus
inscripsisse solo, cui mens interrita nullum
esset ob admissum fœdè, securaque culpae.
Stabat conspectu in medio tremebunda puella,              [775]
iam suffusa oculos mortis nigrore propinquae,
et positis terram genibus submissa petebat;
non minùs exanimata metu, quàm in retia cerva
acta canum latratu et longo exercita cursu,
cùm iam consumptae vires, cùm se undique cinctam          [780]
hoste videt, mortemque instantem certa moratur.
His autem auditis responsis, omnibus ingens
confestim cecidit furor, et vis fracta quievit.
Quisque suam tacito versant in pectore vitam,
inque vicem spectant sese, atque adversa tuentur;           [785]
nec quisquam turba in tanta se prodidit ultro.
Saxa cadunt manibus furtim labentia, et omnes
quisque sui memores abeunt, templumque relinquunt.
Ut verò Deus aspexit vacua atria circùm,
linea detraxit pavitanti vincla puellae,                            [790]
atque illam verbis monitam dimittit amicis:
“I melior, veterum famam iam extingue malorum.”
------------
Having inspected all this, the hero left                         [725]
down through the double doors, thinking of all
he'd seen. Here he encountered a great tumult,
a mob dragging someone, her hair dishevelled,
her skin pale, old Manasseh’s wife—Susanna;
she’d been given to him, young, by her father,           [730]
unwilling, a joyless union, she sick at heart.
The mob was demanding her punishment for
defiling the marriage bed, young men swarming.
Already these youths had stones in their hands.

A priest had come out to try and stop them                  [735]
when he saw Christ in the spacious portico;
and brought the woman over to him and said
thinking to trick him: “here, taken in adultery,
a wife who betrayed her own marriage bed.
By our laws the punishment for this is                       [740]
a hard death (but not unfair!) by stoning.
You are the gentlest of readers of scripture,
and so we come to you seeking your opinion.”
He spoke, and filled his soul with empty hope,
imagining his words had snared his enemy,               [745]
had shut off all exits: for if he defended her
from the charge by which she had been arrested
his gentleness would turn all against him
and the mob, in their rage, would stone him instead,
for trying to overturn their sacred laws;                       [750]
where if he upheld this hard justice, the people
would see him as cruel and abandon him.
So, believing in his mind he had won a victory,
the priest puffed-up his breast with vain dreaming.
As when a sleeping farmer dreams he’s ploughing     [755]
the land with his well-worn plough, and uncovers
a great mass of gold in the field, becoming
giddy with vain joy: but when he wakes up
he is still poor, his life still hardship and work,
and in his heart he’ll curse his stupid dreaming.         [760]

The god found a way (divinity cannot
be fooled by human deceit) to uphold law
and spare innocence. At first he glanced down at
the soil; then he raised his eyes, looked at the crowd
and said: “no doubt, she has merited death                 [765]
for her crime; this is the law of our forefathers.
So let the one who's entirely without sin
cast the first stone, strike her as she merits it.
Who from this number will be the first to throw
their rock, to claim that they are pure of all sin?”           [770]
Having recalled them to this, he watched them all
sidelong, severely, bending ready to write
in the dirt the name of anyone who claimed
he'd done nothing foul and was free from all sin.
Stood in the middle was the terrified girl,              [775]
her eyes darkened by death's proximity,
and she knelt down, and meekly implored them all;
no less exhausted than a hunted roe-deer, chased
a long way by baying hounds, driven at last
when all her strength is used up, into the nets           [780]
of her enemy, hard death pressing her.
But when the crowd heard his words, all their huge
rage fell away, its force broken and quieted.
Each man there looked into his own heart in silence,
and considered how their lives had been spent;           [785]
looking around; no-one was ready to come forward.
The stones slipped from their furtive hands. Everyone,
mindful of themselves, slunk away from the temple.
And the god looked around at the empty court,
untied the hemp rope binding the frightened girl,      [790]
and sent her on her way with gentle words:
“Go: do better. Your old sins are extinguished.”
------------


The famous episode of Jesus and the woman taken in adultery (sometimes called the pericope adulterae) is from John 7:53–8:11. Vida gives it a degree of prominence in this, his first book: after various events, and the long ekphrasis, this is the last but one episode in the book, and is followed by Jesus’s transfiguration, alone on Mount Tabor. Which is to say; this is the last major act Christ performs among men and women in Book 1.

I stress this, because the pericope adulterae itself is controversial. Not in terms of its subject (so much), but because of its canonicity. Many manuscripts of John’s gospels include it, but many don’t, and among this latter category are some of the earliest MSS. This, say theologians, suggests the episode is a later interpolation. My understanding is that theologians are still arguing the toss on this matter, but my point here is that this was very much a live issue in the church in Vida’s own day. Churchmen argued both sides of the matter, and eventually the Council of Trent (1545, so not long after Vida published his epic) decided to intereve, to put an end to the argufying by declaring the episode canon.

Augustine (whom Vida follows in several key ways in the Christiad) believed the pericope was genuine, and explained its absence from some early MSS of John with a theory that some men had removed the passage due to a concern that it would be used by their wives as a pretence to commit adultery. That's Augustine for you: the always-practically-minded attitude of a man who devotes a lot of thought and energy to questions of sexual transgression.

Anyway: Vida, by including this pericope at this point in his narrative, is not only weighing in on the validity of the episode itself, he is embellishing and fleshing it out. John’s account doesn’t name the woman; Vida calls her Susanna (presumably, in reference to the story of Susanna and the Elders) and posits an elderly husband called Manasseh—giving, in effect, the adulteress a believable and even sympathisable reason for her unchastity. In John the Pharisees say to Jesus: ‘Moses in the law commanded us, that such should be stoned: but what sayest thou?’ With a lovely bit of quasi-novelistic detail, John goes on:
But Jesus stooped down, and with his finger wrote on the ground, as though he heard them not. So when they continued asking him, he lifted up himself, and said unto them, He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her. And again he stooped down, and wrote on the ground.
Vida omits the first writing-on-the-ground, and suggests that in the second Jesus is readying himself to write the name of any who stepped forward claiming to be without sin. Why? Obviously a name written in the dust is no sort of permanent record. Biblical commentary sees the reference as, inter alia, a midrash on Jeremiah 17:1, “The sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron, and with the point of a diamond; it is graven upon the table of their heart;—they that depart from Me, shall be written in the earth, because they have forsaken the Lord.” But that's a little hard to apply to this case, it seems to me.

If this is a novelistic detail (as I think it is) it might lead us down Tanner-esque Adultery and the Novel style reflections on contracts, sexual and readerly, being remade in a new age: but this strikes me as a wrong step. Adultery, in this pericope, is a collective, not an individual, transgression. What I mean by that is: there is no furious, jealous and humiliated husband railing at his faithless wife here, but instead a group of Pharisees who, the passage tells us directly, are less interested in the delinquency of the woman than in the pretext she provides to catch Jesus out. It's politics, not sex; and Jesus bending down (as in the gorgeous image at the head of the post, William Blake's ‘The Woman Taken in Adultery’ 1805) to write in the dust emblematizes both his clever flexibility in evading the pharisaical snares laid for him, and his reconfiguring of writing as such. Moses's Law, written on stone, is petrifically inflexible; Jesus's rifacimento of the Law is written in dust, because we are dust, and so it is more in tune with our sinful selves. He makes words, but he is word.

After the rather splendid poetical elevation of the preceding ekphrasis, the Latin here is duller: it's still full of dignified Vergillianisms, but to more pompous and less imaginatively exciting effect. Vida's adulteress dragged through by crowd with her hair all dishevelled ecce trahebatur, passis per terga capillis,/pallida longaevi [lines 728-29] owes something to Vergil's description of Cassandra being seized by the Achaeans during the sack of Troy: ecce trahebatur passis Priameia virgo Crinibus à templo Cassandra adytisque Minervae [Aeneid 2:403-04]; ‘see! Priam's virgin daughter, being dragged, her hair dishevelled, from the temple and shrine of Minerva.’ And ipse viam Deus invenit [line 761] ‘then God found a way’ is a phrase that occurs several times in the Aeneid: 3:395, where the god is Apollo, and 10:113, where it's Jupiter. There's a much longer essay to be written (not that I'm proposing to do it, just yet) about the ways in which Vida recasts the Latin of the Vulgate into a more Vergillian idiom. Take the very famous phrase on which this episode ends: John 8:11's ‘go, and sin no more.’ The Vulgate gives us vade et amplius iam noli peccare. Vida is much more compact: i melior.

[Next: lines 793-829]

Friday, 24 April 2020

Book 1, lines 693-724



[Previous: lines 674-692]

Jesus and his disciples, examining a series of artistic representations of world-history inside the temple at Jerusalem, move on the flood.
Omnibus hïc pauci extinctis mortalibus ibant
inclusi ligno summas impune per undas.
Ingens lativago fluitabat machina ponto,             [695]
et vix extabant immani corpore montes;
quos procul abruptus collisis nubibus ignis
ingeminans creber cœlo rutilante petebat.
Hic natum senior nudo Isacon ense petebat,
infelix pater, exequitur dum tristia jussa.              [700]
Aspiceres illum toto iam corpore niti
dextram attollentem: nondum respexerat; et iam
nuncius ecce aderat cœli demissus ab arce,
iussa ferens primis contraria: victima iuxtà
pascebat, pueri ignari pro caede parata,               [705]
candidus et villis aries argenteus albis.
Hinc fratrem invisum narrata ob somnia fratres
vendebant, misero mentiti dira parenti
funera, discerptumque feris : pater ipse cruentam
versabat nati tunicam, lacrimisque rigabat.           [710]

Hic etiam, Phariis dum cives ducit ab oris,
post longa exilia in patriam, promissaque regna
legifer auxiliis fretus cœlestibus heros;
orta lues populum errantem miseranda repente
serpentum afflatu leto dabat, atque iacebant         [715]
corpora tabifico passim morientia morsu.
Dux vero in medio campi suspendit ahenum
ingenti e malo colubrum, stratosque iubebat
dirigere huc aciem intentos, lignumque tueri,
quae miseris erat haud dubiae via sola salutis.          [720]
Parte alia, rostro terebrans sibi viscera acuto,
fœta avis implumes pascebat vulnere natos.
Stant olli circùm materno sanguine laeti,
et pectus certatim omnes rimantur apertum.
------------
When disaster slew the world a few escaped
enclosed inside timber and riding out the flood:
a huge boat crafted to float the wide ocean.                [695]
You could scarcely see the peaks of huge mountains;
and clouds above collided abruptly, fiery
with lighting and thunder that shook the sky.

Next a father drew sword on his son, Isaac—
unhappy patriarch! obeying sad law:                        [700]
see how his whole body strains with the effort
right arm raised! He hasn’t yet turned, can’t see
the angel come from heaven's high citadel
to rescind the former command—a new victim
is grazing, unwitting kid, ready for slaughter,           [705]
a handsome ram with a silvery-white coat.

Here brothers sold a brother. Hating his dream
interpretations they lied to their parent
saying wild beasts killed him: father gripped the bloody
tunic of his child and watered it with his tears.             [710]

And here, leading his folk out of Pharaoh’s realm
after long exile, towards their promised land:
the Lawgiver! a hero aided by heaven.
Suddenly those wanderers were afflicted by plague:
felled by contagion spread by serpents’ breath            [715]
consuming and killing them where they lay.
Their leader hung, in the middle of a field,
a bronze snake from a tall pole, and ordered
the people lying there to gaze on the wood:
the only salvation for those in misery.                           [720]
Elsewhere, a sharp-beaked bird cruelly tore her bowels,
feeding her newborn unfledged chicks from the wound.
They clustered around their mother, rejoicing,
in her blood and pecking at the open wound.
------------

Next on the tour of temple bas-reliefs, Vida’s continuing ekphrasis, are four patriarchs: Noah, Abraham, Jacob and Moses. The game here—if game isn't too trivialising a term—is that Vida does not name any of these four, but describes indicative scenes in a way that invites the reader to identify whom is portrayed.

So, rather than saying ‘next was the flood, which some escaped inside Noah’s ark’, Vida talks of how everybody died except for some few who were ‘inclusi ligno’, ‘enclosed in wood’. This, apart from its Biblical provenance, is an allusion to one of the most famous bits of Vergil’s Aeneid: Aeneas’s account of the fall of Troy, and how Laocoön tried to warn the Trojans not to roll the wooden horse inside the city walls: ‘I fear the Greeks,’ he declares, ‘even when they bring gifts’, adding hoc inclusi ligno occultantur Achivi, ‘surely enclosed in wood there are Achaeans lurking’ [Aeneid, 2:45]. There’s an intriguing cross-current here: Noah’s wooden ark carries a few through desolation to start a new world, where the Trojan wooden horse carries Ulysses and the Achaeans through the city gates to bring desolation to Troy. The city has to fall, though: felix culpa to facilitate the birth of the new city, the world capital Rome. There are, I know, a great many medieval and renaissance representations of Noah’s ark; I don’t know if any do what Vida does here and fold-in an implicit comparison with the Trojan horse. In Vergil, we go from destroyed Troy to Rome; in Vida we go from (soon to be) devastated Jerusalem to Rome. There are many kinds of flood in the world.

The emphasis in all four of these patriarchal cases is on suffering and sickness as correlatives of man's sinful state; and Vida, artfully enough, insinuates the cure—Christ, of course—into his descriptions by degrees. So the father about to kill son is about to be reprieved, because a substitutionary sacrifice is standing by, handsome in silver and white. Christ's sacrifice, to-come, is the ultimate substitution. Another father takes the blood staining the tunic of his favoured son as a sign that the boy has been cruelly killed, but we know the truth: the blood belongs (another unwitting substitute to the sacrifice of the young man) to an animal, and Joseph is not only alive but will return in splendour. With Moses, Vida focusses on a less famous episode: Numbers 21:4–9, when God told Moses to erect so that the Israelites who saw it would be protected from dying from the bites of the ‘fiery serpents’, which God had sent to punish them for speaking against him and Moses.



The afflictions of the Edenic serpent, author of humanity's woes, are cured by a new, eternal serpent: in the suffering of the body (Christ on the cross) is the cure for all bodies. Vida caps these four brief episodes with an image of a pelican—not named as such in the text, but unmistakeable:
In medieval Europe, the pelican was thought to be particularly attentive to her young, to the point of providing her own blood by wounding her own breast when no other food was available. As a result, the pelican came to symbolise the Passion of Jesus and the Eucharist, supplementing the image of the lamb and the flag. A reference to this mythical characteristic is contained for example in the hymn by Saint Thomas Aquinas, ‘Adoro te devote’ or ‘Humbly We Adore Thee’, where in the penultimate verse, he describes Christ as the loving divine pelican, one drop of whose blood can save the world.
This is the final image in Vida's prolonged ekphrasis; after this the narrative picks up again with Christ leaving the temple and intervening in the case of the woman taken in adultery.


The final image looks, perhaps, like an abrupt shift in focus away from from the patriarchs to a pecky avis, but Vida is in fact picking up and tying-off (as it were) the Egyptian and serpentine threads from earlier in the passage:
A pelican is a bird of Egypt, and dwelleth in deserts beside the river Nile. The pelican loveth too much her children. For when the children be haught, and begin to wax hoar, they smite the father and the mother in the face, wherefore the mother smiteth them again and slayeth them. And the third day, the mother smiteth herself in her side, that the blood runneth out, and sheddeth that hot blood on the bodies of her children. And by virtue of that blood, the birds that were before dead quicken again. Master Jacobus de Vitriaco in his book of the wonders of the Eastern parts telleth another cause of the death of pelicans' birds. He saith that the serpent hateth kindly this bird. Wherefore when the mother passeth out of the nest to get meat, the serpent climbeth on the tree, and stingeth and infecteth the birds. And when the mother cometh again, she maketh sorrow three days for her birds, as it is said. Then (he saith) she smiteth herself in the breast and springeth blood upon them, and reareth them from death to life, and then for great bleeding the mother waxeth feeble, and the birds are compelled to pass out of the nest to get themselves meat. And some of them for kind love feed the mother that is feeble, and some are unkind and care not for the mother, and the mother taketh good heed thereto, and when she cometh to her strength, she nourisheth and loveth those birds that fed her in her need, and putteth away her other birds, as unworthy and unkind, and suffereth them not to dwell nor live with her. [Bartholomaeus Anglicus [13th-century], De proprietatibus rerum, book 12 (this is Robert Steele's 1893 translation, from Mediaeval Lore from Bartholomew Anglicus, 1893)]

[Next: lines 725-792]

Thursday, 23 April 2020

Book 1, lines 674-692


[Previous: lines 644-673]
Nec procul hinc ideo videas latè infera circùm
regna, subobscuras sedes, lucemque malignam              [675]
solis, ubi casti manes, animaeque piorum,
sedibus exclusae quondam debentis Olympi,
unius ob scelus, expectabant ordine longo.
Stabant hic cani proceres, vittataque vatum
agmina tendebantque manus ad sidera passas;              [680]
quos omnes humeris pater altè extantibus Abras
amplificam pandens chlamydem, protentaque latè
brachia subnixus, dextra laevaque tegebat.
Orantes illos credas, superûmque parentem
supplicibus dictis affari, parceret irae,                           [685]
parceret unius noxa omnes perdere gentes.
Substitit hïc imo suspirans pectore divus,
atque ait: “En nostrum deposcunt ista laborem:
in me nulla mora est; ego tantae debitus irae
morte mea eripiam hos tenebris, et claustra refringam. [690]
Quin ea, quae subitò paucis deprensa sequuntur
sublegite infandum mihi portendentia letum.”
------------
Nearby could be seen a circle of infernal
realms, halfshadowed regions lit by a feeble                  [675]
sun, where chaste ghosts, souls of the pious—
excluded from their seats in high Olympus
by one man’s sin—all waited, a long array.
Standing here were white-haired elders, prophets
with laurels on their brow and hands upraised;               [680]
Father Abraham, broad-shouldered, holding wide
his cloak, and reaching out with his raised arms
holding his hands over them all on both sides.
You'll suppose they're praying to the Father
supplicating his anger and begging him,                         [685]
not to destroy everyone for one man’s crime.
And here the divine man sighed a deep sigh
and said: “see how these things compel my work.
Nor will I shirk it! I’ll settle this debt:
my death will rescue them from darkness, will break     [690]
their gaol: though few can see what’s coming; you must
un-mystery the portents of my shocking death.”
------------

I’m not entirely sure what the last two lines here mean: Quin ea, quae subitò paucis deprensa sequuntur/sublegite infandum mihi portendentia letum. Christ is addressing his disciples; deprensus means ‘caught; discovered, recognized; revealed’; sublegite is the second-person-plural imperative of sublegō, which means ‘I gather or pick up or from below, gather or search for underneath. I take away secretly or by stealth; listen to secretly. I choose or elect in the place of another, appoint, substitute’; and infandum letum means shocking or abominable death or ruin. Gardner translates: ‘indeed, unravel the scenes that follow, understood by few, that presage my unspeakable death’, which I’m not sure is any clearer than the Latin—‘unravel’ for the imperative sublegite doesn’t quite catch the collective command, the ‘you-all must do this’, or its secret element, its sub-legibility. Mind you, I can’t put my hand on my heart and say my version is better.

At any rate: this, stop three on the tour of temple bas reliefs, in this part of the poem’s lengthy ekphrasis, gives us Limbo. Here the virtuous and pious patriarchs wait, under Abraham’s as-it-were wing, for Christ to release them. They’re not in the Hell we saw earlier in lines 121-235, and are not being tormented by that passage's lively set of grotesque devils, since the people here have done nothing specifically wrong. But neither are they in Heaven (‘Olympus’, in this poem’s classicising idiom) since they are not baptised in Christ and so not redeemed.

Vida doesn’t call this place Limbo, mind you, and this short passage doesn’t get into the long-standing and complicated debates about what happened to virtuous pagans and unbaptised newborn infants after death. Broadly, Pelagsius, who didn’t buy-into the whole Original Sin idea, but who did nonetheless believe that baptism was necessary for heaven, posited a ‘third’ place for the virtuous-but-unbaptised: neither hell nor heaven but a kind of sub-heaven, eternal happiness but not the intensity or perfection of bliss available to those redeemed by Christ. Augustine wasn’t having any of that:
This is an absolutely new fable, never before heard in the church, that one could have an Eternal Life which is not the kingdom of heaven, and that one could obtain salvation outside of the kingdom of God without doubt will go to damnation. [Augustine, Sermo 294, 3.3]
But although Augustine railed at length against Pelagsius, and repeatedly insisted that there was no ‘third place’ (‘it does not do to believe that it is possible to have a middle life [vita media] between vice and virtue, nor, on the part of the judge, that he can have a middle decision [sententia media] between chastisement and recompense’; De Libero arbitrio 3:66)—nonetheless he ended up endorsing a kind of Limbo anyway: a damned place, but without the absolute severity of pain endured by those who have compounded their original sin with wicked actions. A no-place, as a kind of antechamber to Hell. Dante, illustrated above, took the idea from him.

Vida’s mention of Abraham, in this passage, glances at the mention, in Luke 16:22, of ‘Abraham’s bosom’ (the place the beggar Lazarus goes to live in bliss as Dives is sent down into Hell). What does Christ mean when he says this? How can Abraham, unbaptised, be in heaven to offer his welcoming bosom to Lazarus until after Christ has harrowed hell, something that, by Luke 16, he had not yet done? It was a passage that troubled Augustine, and the saint’s account of it is, I think, behind Vida’s passage here. Take for example this, from a letter written late in Augustine's life:
But I would find it hard to say whether the bosom of Abraham where the wicked rich man, from the torments of hell in which he was, saw the poor man reposing, is to be considered under the term paradise or considered as belonging to hell. [Augustine, Epistola 187, 2:6].
In the words of Christopher Beiting [‘The Third Place: Augustine, Pelagius and the Theological Roots of the Idea of Limbo’, Augustiniana, 48 (1998), 28], Augustine here reverses his earlier position on the plain duality of heaven and hell ‘by presenting a new view of the geography of hell.’ In Augustine’s own words:
Besides, if we are to believe there are two regions in hell, one of the suffering and one of the souls at rest, that is, both a place where the rich man was tormented and one where the poor man was comforted, who would dare to say that the Lord Jesus came to the penal parts of hell instead of only among those who rest in Abraham's bosom?
This, I think, is what Vida is portraying here: a separate section of Hell, where Abraham shelters many under his ‘cloak’—his ‘in Abraham’s bosom’ is, in the Vulgate ‘in sinum Abrahae’, and sinus is a word with several meanings, amongst them a hollow or cavity; a bosom but also ‘a fold of the toga over the breast, pocket’ [L&S]. So that's what's going on here, I think.

[Next: lines 693-724]